FUNGO'S SECOND DIRECTIVE TO WRITING, READING AND REFERENCING

THE INSTITUTE OF FINANCE MANAGEMENT
THE LAW PANEL DIRECTIVE NO.2/2009
FUNGO’S GUIDE TO READING, WRITING AND REFERENCING
PART I
GENERAL GUIDANCE

TERMINOLOGIES
Citation - a reference to a document. It should include all the bibliographic details needed to trace the document.
Footnotes - listed at the bottom of the page on which a reference or citation occurs in the text. A number is placed in the text to indicate the cited work and again at the bottom of the page in front of the footnote. Used when only a small number of references need to be made.
Endnote - when a large number of references are to be cited, endnotes (at the end of each chapter or at the end of the whole work) are often used.
References - a list of citations (material cited) in a written work.
Bibliography - is a list of documents (books, articles, papers) read for a specific essay of assignment. It can also mean a list of works on a specific subject. Listing the resources you use as you gather information will save you a lot of time later on.
A. READING
When you read any book or enter the library for reading, first extract the following information from the literature you are just reading before going to the substance of the literature:
(i) Name of the author of the book or article- this should start with his surname followed by his initials or first name
(ii) The title of the book or article
(iii) The name of the publisher
(iv) The volume or edition of the book or article
(v) The year of publication
(vi) The page or pages of the book you are reading
This information will help you when writing your bibliography or references by way of footnotes or end notes.
Note:
That, if you are reading an article online i.e. on a website then the following important things must be observed:
(a) Name of the article or story you are reading
(b) The name of the author or publisher of the article or story
(c) The name of the website or the link to the website you are reading. This is obtained by directing the pointer of your mouse to the address bar on top of your webpage; highlight the web address in front of you and copy it. After copying it, open Microsoft word and paste it there for future reference and save, so that later on when you are writing your bibliography the link or address will help you.
Mind you, it is not enough for you to only write, the address in its generality e.g. Google of ifm. Com.
(d) Page of the article
After obtaining this information, continue reading the rest of your article or book. Remember, when writing any work, you must acknowledge by stating the sources of which the knowledge is obtained by mentioning the author, failure to do so constitutes an academic offence called plagiarism. Do not copy anyone’s work word to word or sentence to sentence or paragraph to paragraph, what you need to do is to paraphrase i.e. to write in your own language what have you understood about the topic without losing the main content.
B. CITING LEGAL OR ANY OTHER WORK
When should you cite sources?
o Cite sources for all verbatim quotations of two or more consecutive words.
o Cite sources from which you paraphrase or summarize facts or ideas.
o Cite sources for ideas or information that could be regarded as common knowledge but which you think your reader might still find unfamiliar
o Cite sources that add relevant information to the particular topic or argument of your work
o Cite sources for materials that you might not normally consider as "texts" because they are not written.
o If in doubt about whether or not to cite a source, cite.


What are the different types of sources?
The type of source (or the 'medium' of the source) will help you determine what information will be required to cite a source adequately. Some types of sources commonly used include:
o Book
o Conference or symposium proceedings - a set of papers delivered at the professional meetings or conferences of scholars.
o Computer program - a language written for a computer that performs some function.
o Documentary - an audio or visual program on a non-fictional subject.
o Edited work - a collection of articles or other written materials that is edited by one or more persons. The editor is identified as such on the title page.
o Government publication
o Graphic illustration - an illustration, chart, or graph.
o Journal article - an article that is published in a scholarly journal.
o Lecture - publicly accessible oral presentation before an audience.
o Map
o Newspaper
o Personal communication - this could include a letter, an email, a conversation, or some other direct communication not publicly available (including lectures).
o Thesis
o Web page

(i) Citing a case
A case is cited by starting with the names of the parties (i.e. the Plaintiff/claimant and the defendant) e.g. BROWN V.JONES
The names of the parties are followed with the year on which the case was reported or decided e.g. (1969). After the year of the report, there follows the court in which the case was decided e.g. KB or TLR. Then there follows the page number in the report on which the case is found e.g. 394.
Therefore the citation of the case will look as follows Brown v. Jones (1969) KB 394.


Note
In law, the one who sues another is called the Plaintiff or Claimant and the one who is sued or defends the case is called the Defendant. Similarly, the one who appeals is called the Appellant and the one who is appealed against or responds to the appeal is called the Respondent.
(ii) Citing a section in the statute
If for instance you want to cite section two subsection one of the law of Contract Act, 1961; then cite as follows in numeric numbers:- S.2(1) or if the section has a paragraph then cite the paragraph at the end e.g. the definition of a consideration is found under s.2(1)(d) of the Law of Contract Act. That is how the section, subsection and the paragraph will be cited
(iii) Citing a statute
A statute is cited by starting with the name of the statute, followed by the number assigned to the statute (if any), then chapter of the statute, and lastly the year on which it was enacted by parliament.
For instance: The Insurance Act, No.10, 2009 or the Law of Contract Act, Cap. 435, 1961 or (R.E: 2002).
NOTE
Whenever you are writing, you are required to only cite Tanzania law, even if you are reading a book from outside Tanzania for instance India or UK which has cited the laws of that Country, you are either required to compare it with a similar law in Tanzania or say exactly that, this is according to the law of country X, Y or Z, and then say what is the position in Tanzania.
C. WRITING
(i) WRITING IN SEMINAR/TUTORIAL
Tutorial or seminar is places designed to enable student underscore the knowledge they have obtain from a lecture. It is an opportunity for a student to show their talents, how have they understood the subject and if not the place to discuss and correct themselves. Tutorial presentation enables students to build their confidence to express themselves, share views, build and develop speaking techniques and ability to research, thus unlike a lecture where a lecturer is supposed to deliver everything and a student sit and listen, tutorial is a student centred, a lecturer is expected to play the role of an umpire(referee). This is accomplished by availing students an opportunity to express themselves in front of others, answer questions from the seminar members and receive any constructive ideas.
(i) The Role of Presenters
(a) To discuss and understand the question they have been assigned thoroughly
(b) To research various sources of information needed to answer the question including consultation of experts.
(c) To sit down and all of them participate in preparing the manuscript of their work and then send it for typing or type themselves.
(d) On the presentation day, arrange themselves for presentation and each members should know what is going to be presented as it is assumed that everyone participated. Preparation includes personal presentation which includes but not limited to appear in good attires and smart.
(e) On the presentation day, presenters are expected after finishing presentation to be able to answer any question or challenges
(f) We expect the work to be word processed, justified, well punctuated, well paragraphed and well referenced in the form of footnotes and bibliography as it appears in the preceding pages below.
(ii) The role of the Seminar members
(a) To listen carefully while noting the areas of weaknesses and strength of the presentation
(b) To ask questions regarding the presentation or put forward any positive contribution
(c) Judge the work of presenters in comparison to what they have read or understood the question
(d) They should as well have read the question to be presented

(iii) The role of the lecturer/seminar leader/tutorial assistant
(a) To sit down and listen presenters to present after inviting them
(b) To note any areas of weaknesses in order to correct them
(c) To ask questions to presenters in uncertain areas
(d) To give seminar members opportunity to contribute to the presentation
(e) To judge the work of presenters and award marks instantly in the class.
• For a seminar presentation a student is expected to read intensively and extensively all sources of information including but not limited to the books and journals in the library, thesis and dissertations, newspapers, and online materials.
• The minimum number of books or articles a student can read for a seminar presentation is five.
• A presentation work is expected to have footnotes.
• At the end of the presentation, presenters are expected to have a bibliography of their sources of information which should contain the following information
(i) The author’s surname
(ii) Initials
(iii) Title of the book or publication
(iv) Volume or edition
(v) The name of the publisher
(vi) The place of publication
(vii) The year of publication
D. APPEARANCE OF THE LITERATURES USED IN THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
(i) BOOKS
Ivamy, E.R, General Principles of Insurance Law, 4th edition, Butterworth’s, London, 2005
United Republic of Tanzania, National Trade Policy Background Papers, Ministry of Industry and Trade, Dar es Salaam, 2003
Mwakajinga, E.A, Business Law, Vol.1, Banyakajinga Elimu Establishment, Dar es Salaam, 2006
(ii) ARTICLES
Juma, I.H, ‘The Legal Education in Tanzania’, in Nyerere Law Journal, Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam, 2006
(iii) ONLINE ARTICLES
If for example you visited www.maarifa-sheria.blogspot.com and you found an interesting article therein about writing skills and reading and you want to cite it in your bibliography, the citation will appear as follows:
Fungo, A.E, Fungo’s Index to Reading and Writing, available at www.marrifa-sheria.blogspot.com or if it is a book available online it will be cited as follows
Nditi, N.N.N, The Law of Contract in East Africa, Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam, 2006 available at www.udsm.ac.tz/fol/documents
SUMMARY
In short, the following information should appear in you bibliography or footnote
For a book, the bibliographic reference should include
• author or editor(s) with initials or forenames
• title (underlined or in italics)
• edition (unless it is the first)
• publisher
• date of publication
• page number(s) if referred to
These should be ordered as shown in the examples below. If there are three or more authors, you should give the name of only the first, followed by et al. ('et alia' meaning 'and others' in Latin).
For a journal article, the reference should include
• author(s) with initials or forenames
• article title
• full journal title (underlined or in italics)
• volume number
• date of publication
• page numbers
BIBLIOGRAPHY SUGGESTED STYLES
BOOKS, REPORTS AND ARTICLES
Agnew, David J and Barnes Colin T, Economic Aspects and Drivers of IUU Fishing: Building a Framework, in Fish Piracy: Combating Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, OECD, Paris, 2004
Alderton, Tony and Winchester, Nik, Regulation, Representation and the Flag Market, Journal of Marine Research, September 2002
Anderson, H Edwin, The Nationality of Ships and Flags of Convenience: Economics, Politics and Alternatives, 21 Mar. Law. 139
Balton, David A, The Bering Sea Doughnut Hole Convention, in Olav Schram Stokke (ed.), Governing High Seas Fisheries, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001
Boczek, Boleslaw Adam, Flags of Convenience: An International Legal Study, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1962
Churchill, Robin and Lowe, Vaughan, The Law of the Sea, 3rd Ed. Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1999
CITING ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
Anderson, Sarah and Cavanagh, John, Top 200, The Rise of Corporate Global Power, December 2000 available at http://www.ips-dc.org/downloads/Top_200.pdf accessed on 24th September, 2009
Bray, Kevin, A Global Review of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing available at http://www.affa.gov.au/corporate_docs/publications/pdf/fisheries/eciouuf/IUU6.pdf accessed on 22nd November, 2009.
(ii) WRITING IN EXAMS OR TESTS
Examination writing differs a lot from tutorial writing in the sense that during the exam a student do not have enough time to think, prepare, research, write and present their work, thus the rules of writing are somehow lenient. What is expected of a student is to adhere to basic writing skills such as:-
(a) Observing margins on both sides of the paper
(b) Use of punctuation marks
(c) The use of paragraphs and
(d) Clarity
During the examination, students are not expected to write a case in full for instance Fisher v. Bell (1906) 2AC 394 rather they are expected to just say... as it was discussed in Fisher v. Bell. Again we do not expect student to cite the footnotes or bibliography rather we expect if a student wants to refer to a book to just say... according to the book or according to Mwakajinga in his book titled Business Law, a contract is defined as an agreement with a legal force, Without mentioning the name of the publisher, year of publication etc.
We also expect students if for instance they are asked:- What are the essentials of a valid contract, to go direct to the question by mentioning and discussing the essentials of a valid contract such as agreement, consideration, lawful object, intention to create legal relation etc.
Whereas if the same question above is asked in the tutorial, we expect students to do more than mentioning and discussing the essential features of a contract, since they have enough time to think, research and prepare for the answers.
In a question like the above, we expect students to tell us:-
First, what do they understand by the term contract? The answer will be derived from how different authors have defined it
Secondly, we expect students to tell us when we refer to a valid contact what do we mean
Thirdly, we expect students now to mention what are the essentials now of a valid contract, in which after each point there is an explanation about the point in a single paragraph of not exceeding ten lines.
Lastly, we expect student to write references in the form of footnotes and at the end of the work to provide us with a full bibliography.
(iii) WRITING AND APPEARANCE OF FOOTNOTES IN A TEXT
Footnotes are used when referring within the text. For instance you have been asked a question about the nature and advantages of a contract and you have been to the library and you have read three books discussing about contracts and their importance and now you want to write your tutorial presentation paper. The presentation will look as follows:-
Q. Briefly explain the nature and advantages of a contract
Answer
A contract has been defined as an agreement with a legal force . This view is also shared by Mwakajinga and Binamungu, when they state that any agreement without a legal force is null and void . The Law also states that any agreement enforceable by law is a contract . Therefore for something to be referred to as a contract, it must have a force of law.

According to Fungo one of the advantages of a contract is to create certainty and binding obligations in the society without which the society will be in anarchy. Fungo goes further by saying, in its nature a contract is binding and once signed it becomes sacrosanct; meaning neither the courts nor the state will interfere to it provided the same complied with all the requirements for a valid contract.

From the above explanation, we can say that, a contract is very useful in our daily life and when one enters to it must be careful as his signature binds him so that he can fulfil his promise promptly.

So, you see how the above question has been answered? It is very clear and certain, it is well arranged, well paragraphed, well referenced and the content is good. The work of others used to answer the question has been properly acknowledged. The student answering the question has also shown his position of understanding after every paragraph and at the end he has drawn a conclusion from his own words. So this is how the question should be answered.

SUMMARY
► Footnoting: Suggested Style for Books and articles
1. Rosemary Rayfuse, To Our Children’s Children’s Children: From Promoting to Achieving Compliance in High Seas Fisheries, The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol.20, (November 2005), Nos. 3-4, at p.524, (herein after “Rayfuse 2005”)
► Footnoting: Suggested Style for cases
R v Smith [2007] 2 All ER 306, at p.312, per Lord Brown
R v Smith [2007] 2 All ER 306, at 312, per Lord Brown
R v. Smith [2007] 2 All ER 306, per Lord Brown, at 312
► Footnoting: Suggested Style for statutes
s.3 (1) Criminal Law Act 1967 or
Criminal Law Act 1967, s.3 (1)

ADVANTAGES OF CITING REFERENCES OR ACKNOWLEDGING
Citing your references can:
o Show how widely you have researched your topic and on what authority you base your arguments or conclusions.
o Provide the reader of your work with enough information to find the sources of information you have consulted.
o Allow you to acknowledge those authors who made possible particular aspects of your work. Failure to provide adequate citations constitutes plagiarism.
o By outlining your sources you also draw attention to the originality and legitimacy of your own ideas.
E. KEY WORDS USED DURING EXAMS/ESSAY TITLES OR TESTS

Account for: Give your reasons for and explain why something happens.

Analyse: Identify main points, then look at the detail and ‘critically evaluate’.
Argue the case for: Back up the theory, idea or model by giving the reasons and evidence in favour of it. This will often involve showing how to meet contrary arguments which are made in the literature.

Assess: Weigh up or judge the value of, or say to what extent conditions are fulfilled. ‘Evaluate’ the evidence and argument on both sides.

Calculate: Find the value of and show your working.

Clarify: Simplify and make clearer.

Comment upon: Identify main issues and give your point of view, backed up by reasoning and/or evidence from academic reading or lectures.

Compare: Do not simply describe first one and then the other, but identify similarities and differences between two or more objects, ideas or processes. Show their relevance. Perhaps argue that one is preferable.

Consider: Express your thoughts and observations about. Refer to theory and research evidence to back up your opinions, showing how you meet contrary views to your own.

Contrast: Set two or more things or ideas in opposition to draw out the differences. Indicate whether the differences are significant.

Criticise: Give your judgment, supported by reasons and evidence, about the demerits of theories, opinions or methodology, and point out defects or show errors.

Critically evaluate: Weigh arguments for and against, assessing theory and evidence on both sides. Use academic evidence to guide your assessment. It does not necessitate criticizing, on the contrary it means coming to a balanced conclusion based on the most critically important criteria, which you have to set out and justify.

Define: Give exact meaning in your own words – showing an awareness of the definitions which are used in the literature and why you would prefer one definition to others.

Demonstrate: Show how, prove with examples

Describe: Give a detailed and graphic account.

Develop: Expand upon.

Differentiate/ Distinguish: Identify and explain the differences between.
Discuss: Present a ‘rounded’ argument taking into consideration as many intellectual positions as are relevant. Present the main arguments in favour and against those positions, assessing their relative strengths and weaknesses. Come to a reasoned conclusion.

Elaborate: Add details.

Enumerate: Make an ordered list, giving main features or general principles whilst omitting unnecessary details.

Evaluate: Assess the worth, importance or usefulness of something, giving reasons, backed up with evidence.

Examine: Look at in detail, attempt to discover and display the key elements; you will normally be expected to evaluate ‘critically too.

Expand: Go into more detail.

Explain: Make clear why something happens, or make clear the meaning of. Cite evidence and sources in the literature.

Explore: Approach in questioning manner and/or consider from a variety of viewpoints; show where the argument or line of analysis may lead.

Give an account of: Describe in some detail and give reasons for.

How far: Give evidence for and against and then ‘evaluate’.

Identify: Pick out key critical or the most salient features.

Illustrate: Show, point out, make clear by use of concrete examples.

Interpret: Give the meaning and relevance of, usually giving own reasoned opinion too.

Justify: Give evidence supporting argument or idea; show why decisions and conclusions were made; show how to argue against the opposing point of view.

Narrate: Tell what happened as a story.

Outline: Give the main points, showing the main structure, (leaving out detail).

Relate: Show similarities and how things are connected and affect one another.

Review: Do not simply repeat, summarise or regurgitate, but identify most salient features and assess them.

Show: Reveal, disclose (in logical sequence), leading to a conclusion.

Show how: Make clear by what means.

State: Give main points in brief, clear form

Summarise: Give main points briefly, leaving out detail and examples.

To what extent: Consider ‘how far’ something is true or supports the argument or action. Consider the opposite view. Give evidence for both. (The answer may lie between ‘completely ‘and ‘not at all’.)

Trace: Give the development or history from some point of origin and explain stage by stage.
Verify: Show to be true, confirm, or give evidence for.
F.






PART II
A GUIDE TO ESSAY/DISSERTATION/PROJECT WRITING
(A) ESSAYS
Why write Essays
Essay writing can help you to:
• Organise your thinking
• Develop your own point of view on an issue
• Get to grips with new information, ideas and experiences
• Practise expressing your own ideas and arguments
• Get feedback from your tutor/supervisor about how much you have understood and how well you are able to communicate this
Course requirements
Read your course handbook/syllabus or instructions carefully and follow instructions regarding written work. Check out any particular requirements such as:
• Length or word limit
• Whether scripts must be typed
• How references should be presented
• Format
WORKING ON ESSAYS/DISERTATION
1. Thinking about the essay question or title
• Examine the precise wording of the title so that you can decide exactly what you are being asked to do. Identify the key words.
• Consider the assumptions behind the question and the implications that arise.
• Does the topic require general treatment or specific reference to certain aspects?
• What sort of evidence or illustrations/examples will you need to back up your argument?
• Should you use your own experiences and opinions as well as referring to the work/theories of others? Consider the appropriate balance.
• How many parts are there to the question? How much weight should you give to each part?
o Underline the key words
o Check that you understand the main Directive words, e.g. Criticise, Discuss, Justify, Review
o Define the key concepts
2. Collecting the material
• Brainstorm. Having examined the title thoroughly, write down all the thoughts and ideas that come into your mind at this stage. Decide what information you need.
• Start researching early to take advantage of relevant and useful ideas that come up in lectures, seminars, discussions or general reading.
• Start focused reading. On some courses you will be given booklists which will provide the main source of ideas and information - otherwise access the Library catalogue for relevant material
• Read selectively and purposefully. (You don't have to read books from cover to cover.) As you read, begin to formulate questions. How will this be relevant to the essay? Will this support my argument - or cause me to change my views?
• Make notes under separate headings - adding your own views about how theories can be complementary - or opposite approaches.
• Follow up further sources and make use of journals, research papers, encyclopedias, dictionaries, etc.
• Record all the sources at the time you use them, including page numbers, ready for your List of References. (Researchers and postgraduates may find a PC bibliography package, such as Papyrus, useful.)
3. Thinking creatively
• Consider why you are writing this essay and why you are taking this approach.
• What is your personal angle or "spin"?
• Keeping this in mind, from reading and notes choose your main themes and arguments.
• Put them into order - so that they will flow
• Sort out the evidence - references, examples, illustrations to back up your specific points.
• Try to argue from the opposite point of view. Is there evidence for this?
• Find the balance and some new conclusions.
• Can this be developed further?
4. Planning the essay

All essays should conform to the basic structure of :
• Introduction
• Main body of essay
• Conclusion
5. Writing the essay
• Write a first draft just as the ideas come. Don't worry about precise wording.
• You don't have to start writing at the beginning. Begin with the section that you feel will be the easiest.
• Write in as clear a style as possible so that your reader can understand you. Avoid abbreviations and slang.
• Write in paragraphs. The first sentence will introduce the topic or theme - as a sign-post of what is to follow. Then develop the idea or argument and back it up with the evidence. The final sentence in a paragraph may summarise the point and/or refer back to the essay title - unless the following paragraph is continuing on to develop the same ideas.
• Each paragraph should link naturally with preceding and following paragraphs.
• Leave the first draft for a day so that when you return you will look at it more objectively. Make sure that your plan is coherent. Change paragraph order where necessary. Add what is missing and delete the irrelevant.
• Edit the paragraphs, checking for ambiguity. Change wording; correct grammar and spelling.
• Make sure that you have acknowledged all sources in the Bibliography/List of References
Final checklist
• Have I answered the question that was set?
• Have I covered the main aspects?
• Is the content relevant and accurate?
• Is the material arranged logically?
• Does the essay move smoothly from paragraph to paragraph?
• Is each main point supported by examples and argument?
Have I acknowledged all sources and references?
B. PROJECT REPORT
What is a report?
A report is a systematic, well organised document which defines and analyses a subject or problem, and which may include:
the record of a sequence of events
interpretation of the significance of these events or facts
evaluation of the facts or results of research presented
discussion of the outcomes of a decision or course of action
conclusions
recommendations
Reports must always be:
Accurate
concise
clear
well structured
Why is the report important?
If you wish to secure a good mark for your project, it is absolutely essential that you write a good report. It is the report which is marked, not the program or anything else you might have constructed during the project period. No matter how significant your achievements, if you do not write up your work, and write it up well, you will obtain a poor mark.
It is essential to understand that the report will be read and marked by a number of examiners (normally 2 - 4), only one of whom - your supervisor - will have any familiarity with the work which the report describes. Examiners are not mind-readers, and cannot give credit for work which you have done but not included in the report.
2. What are the examiners looking for?
Each project report is marked initially by two examiners, one of whom is the supervisor. Each examiner fills in a mark sheet, giving marks for various aspects of the report and an overall mark. Studying the mark sheet will give you a good idea of what aspects of the report are important.
Note that supervisors might specify on the mark sheet that a particular aspect of the project is to be assessed - for example, a review of the project area - even if that area is not covered in the project report. Decisions on what is to be assessed are the supervisor's responsibility, but you should be aware of the standard headings, think carefully about what you present (or do not present) under each, and discuss and agree it with your supervisor.
Remember that your report is an academic dissertation, not a popular article or commercial proposal. For example, rather than describing only a series of events and a final product, try to establish criteria, present arguments, derive principles, pose and answer questions, measure success, analyse alternatives and so on. Where a project has been undertaken with industrial support, the significance of that support for the project, and the relevance of the project to the supporting industry, should be discussed.
3. The mechanics of writing
The problem you have to solve is this: to transfer your own experiences of doing the project, and the knowledge you have gained, from your brain onto paper in a coherent, logical and correct form.
There are several ways of achieving this. Different authors have different techniques. My own method, which I think is quite common among technical authors, is to write as quickly as I can, without regard for coherency, structure or order, until I have written down (or rather, typed in) all the points I can think of. If my brain is running faster than my fingers and a thought pops into my head which belongs in another part of the document, I skip to the end of the page and insert a few words there to remind me to expand that point later, then resume where I was. The aim is to transfer as much relevant material from brain to paper as quickly as possible. This method has been called the ``brain dump''. It is practised, I think, by some writers of fiction as well as by technical authors.
After three hours of ``brain dumping'' I might have four or five pages of disorganized text. I then spend perhaps six hours putting the text into order and tightening up the prose, after which I might have three pages of good-quality prose. This method of writing is an iterative process, with periods of ``brain dumping'' alternating with periods of tidying-up.
At the rate of three pages of polished text every nine hours, a typical 60-page PR3 project report will take you about four weeks to complete, working full-time. You must allow time to prepare the appendices (e.g. program listings) and illustrations. Good-quality illustrations, in particular, take a long time to prepare. You should therefore allow at least six weeks to write the report.
If you kept a note-book during the project period, you will find the writing-up process much easier.
4. How to write well
Many students appear not to realize how difficult it is to write well. Any type of writing (except perhaps advertising copy) is difficult, but technical writing is particularly hard.
There are many books which address the subject of good technical writing. By far the best among those which I have seen is Scientists Must Write by Robert Barrass (1982). Though published over twenty years ago, this superb little book is still in print. There are several copies in the J.B. Morrell library, but since it costs only £11.19 (from the Internet Bookshop), you would be well advised to buy a copy and to read it from cover to cover.
4.1. Precision
You must strive first to be absolutely precise. When you write, it is not sufficient that you know what you mean; neither is it sufficient that your writing admits of the meaning which you intend: it must admit of no other meaning. What you write must not be capable of misinterpretation. Take exceptional care to choose the right word for the occasion. Do not, for example, write ``optimum'' if you mean ``good''. ``Approximate'' means ``close'', so ``very approximate'' means ``very close'' - which is not what many people seem to think it means.
4.2. Vigour
Precision in writing is mainly a matter of taking sufficient care. Good writing is not only precise, however, it is vigorous, and that is much harder to achieve. It helps if you have read widely, especially novels. Here are some hints which might help you to write forcefully and vigorously.
Prefer short sentences to long sentences. Prefer short words to long words, provided that the short word has the meaning you need. Terseness is a great virtue in technical writing. (But don't go too far; remember Horace's observation: ``Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio''.) Avoid circumlocutions. ``In almost all sectors of the computing marketplace'' can be replaced in most contexts by ``almost everywhere''.
The question of whether to use the passive voice in technical writing is a thorny one. Most older writers still write ``a program was written ...'' rather than ``I wrote a program ...''. Many of your examiners might share this preference for, or prejudice in favour of, the passive voice, but this style is passing out of favour in all technical writing, and I advise you not to use it. Whatever you do, do not use the ``royal we'' (``we wrote a program'' when you mean ``I wrote a program'').
There is general agreement that Latin phrases are best avoided in technical writing (but the occasional Latin quotation might lend a spurious air of erudition!) Nevertheless, many careful writers have their own favourite Latin phrases which find occasional use. The best rule is that a Latin phrase is acceptable if it abbreviates a circumlocutionary English phrase. Mutatis mutandis, for example, one of my own favourites, is permissible in place of ``making the appropriate changes'', since any English gloss seems to be ugly and unwieldy. ``I.e.'' (note the roman font and punctuation) is often useful in place of ``in other words'' or ``that is'', and is widely understood. Quite often, however, ``X, i.e., Y'' can be replaced by ``Y'', because the writer realized while writing X that Y said the same, only better. ``E.g.'' is overused and best used sparingly; prefer ``for instance'' or ``for example''.
4.3. Spelling and grammar
You must take exceptional care to spell correctly. Poor spelling is a distraction to the proficient reader. In most cases there is very little excuse nowadays for spelling errors; there are many excellent spell-checker programs which make a good job of finding the errors for you, and excellent (paper) dictionaries which will tell you what the correct spelling is. Be especially careful with words whose common mis-spelling is a correct spelling of a different word, in particular the following pairs: lead/led; loose/lose; affect/effect. It is dangerous to allow the spell-checker to ``correct'' a mis-spelling by itself; many such hilarious ``corrections'' have been reported, for example recently in New Scientist.
Believe the spell-checker. Very many people, for example, on finding that the spell-checker questions ``idiosyncracy'' [sic], say to themselves ``it must be missing from the dictionary file'', and leave the word alone. It is - for a good reason.
If you have a medical condition which makes it difficult for you to spell correctly, make sure that your supervisor knows about it, so that it can be taken into account by the examiners.
If poor spelling is a distraction which impedes understanding, poor grammar is more so. There are so many potential grammatical solecisms that it would be inappropriate to attempt to list them here. Read Fowler's Modern English Usage for guidance. This book has been revised several times since its first publication in 1926. The most recent (1998) edition is probably the best to use, not because its recommendations are more permissive or up-to-date, but because it draws attention to traps which it would not have occurred to Fowler in 1926 that anyone could fall into. The original 1926 edition is famous for its vigorous, fiery language, which has been successively watered down in later revisions.
Take care with apostrophes. Historically, the apostrophe denoted the omission of one or more letters: don't = do not, John's book = John his book. For this reason, careful writers of British English restrict the possessive use of the apostrophe to animate possessors. You may write ``John's book'' but not ``the program's function'', since (so the argument goes) one cannot write ``the program his function'': you must write ``the function of the program'' instead. This rule is being steadily eroded under American influence, and will probably soon be obsolete.
I mention the ``animate possessor'' rule in order to illustrate and to explain a very common blunder. Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. ``It's'' means ``it is'' (the letter that's omitted is an ``i''), not ``it his'', which is plain silly. One never sees spurious apostrophes in his, hers, ours, yours, theirs; so why does one so often see ``it's'' in place of ``its'', which is the correct possessive pronoun?
The brain of the experienced reader, on seeing ``it's'', performs a lexical-level macro-expansion, replacing ``it's'' by ``it is''. This then fails to make syntactic sense in the context, necessitating a backtracking and re-parsing operation, and conscious expenditure of effort. It really does slow down, and consequently annoy, the reader. This crass and ignorant blunder probably does more to distract and to impede the reader of students' reports than any other grammatical solecism.
Summary: ``it's'' = ``it is'' (needed rarely, if at all, in formal writing). ``Its'' is the pronoun (This is my program. Its purpose is to ... .) You almost certainly mean ``its''.
Even if you yourself do not place a strong emphasis on good spelling and good grammar, most of your examiners do, some fanatically. Most examiners will be irritated by poor spelling and poor grammar. It is always worth doing whatever you can, short of bribery, to put your examiner in a good mood. Write well and spell well, for this reason if for no other!
Your report should generally contain illustrations (figures or diagrams), but they must be relevant. Ask yourself if the illustration helps the reader to understand the text. If the text is readily comprehensible without the illustration, delete the illustration. If it is not, it is usually better to make the text clearer than to add a diagram.
All illustrations should be prepared by an appropriate program, such as pic, xfig or grap. They should not be hand-drawn. The only common exception to this rule is circuit diagrams: given the current state of the art in schematic-entry packages, a hand-drawn circuit diagram is usually preferable to a computer-drawn one.
If possible, include figures close to the text which refers to them, rather than all together in an appendix. Circuit diagrams are, again, a possible exception to this rule. It is normal to list tables and figures at the beginning of the report, after the table of contents.
5. Structure
5.1. Top-level structure
At the top level, a typical report is organized in the following way.
1. Abstract. (This is a couple of paragraphs - no more - which summarizes the content of the report. It must be comprehensible to someone who has not read the rest of the report.)
2. Introduction. (The scope of the project, setting the scene for the remainder of the report.)
3. Previous work. (One or more review chapters, describing the research you did at the beginning of the project period.)
4. Several chapters describing what you have done, focusing on the novel aspects of your own work.
5. Further work. (A chapter describing possible ways in which your work could be continued or developed. Be imaginative but realistic.)
6. Conclusions. (This is similar to the abstract. The difference is that you should assume here that the reader of the conclusions has read the rest of the report.)
7. References and appendices.
5.2. References
References must be relevant. A typical PR3 project report might contain about one page of pertinent references, if the initial research period was well spent. Do not include references which you have not read, no matter how relevant you think they might be. If you refer to standard material which is covered by a large number of text-books, choose one or two really good ones and cite those, rather than a long list of mediocre texts.
There are many styles for citing references. Although strict standards (e.g. British Standards) for citing references exist, my advice is not to bother with them; instead, find a reputable journal in the library and copy its style. Alternatively, copy the example below. It's important to be consistent, complete and unambiguous; beyond that, it doesn't matter much what you do.
THE GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF A REPORT
Title page (always included)
This should normally include the title, your name and the name of the tutor to whom it is being submitted, date of submission, your course/department, and if applicable, the name of the person and/or organisation who has commissioned the report. Avoid “fancy” fonts and effects and don’t include any clipart.
Acknowledgements (usually just in long reports)
A list of people and organisations both within and outside the institute or college who have helped you
Contents page (always included in reports of 4+ pages)
A clear, well-formatted list of all the sections and sub-sections of the report. Don’t forget to put the page numbers! If applicable, there should be a separate list of tables, figures, illustrations and/or appendices after the main index.
Make sure that the headings in this list correspond exactly with those in your main body. It is best to do your list of contents right at the end.
Executive Summary or Abstract (usually included in longer reports; may be called Executive Summary, Abstract or Synopsis)
This is a very brief outline of the report to give the potential reader a general idea of what it’s about. A statement of:
overall aims and specific objectives (unless included in terms of reference)
method/procedure used (unless included in separate section)
key findings
main conclusions and recommendations
Introduction (always included)
This should show that you have fully understood the task/brief and that you are going to cover everything required. Indicate the basic structure of the report. You should include just a little background/context and indicate the reasons for writing the report. You may include your terms of reference and procedure/research methods if not covered elsewhere. Your introduction will often give an indication of the conclusion to the report.
Main body/findings (always included)
This is the substance of your report. The structure will vary according to the nature of the material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used to clearly indicate the different sections (unlike an essay). A "situation>problem>solution>evaluation" approach may be appropriate.
It is not sufficient to simply describe a situation. Your tutor will be looking for analysis and for a critical approach, when appropriate. Charts, diagrams and tables can be used to reinforce your arguments, although sometimes it may be better to include these as an appendix (particularly if they are long or complicated). Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section
Results or what is learnt (possibly included in scientific/engineering reports)
This section records your observations (in the past tense) and would normally include statistics, tables or graphs.
Literature Review
A review of any literatures you consulted before going to the field or after coming from the field which may either help to define, explain, describe or discuss any terms or contents used in the text or anything found in the field.
Conclusion (always included)
Your conclusion should draw out the implications of your findings, with deductions based on the facts described in your main body. Don’t include any new material here
Recommendations (sometimes included)
These should follow on logically from your conclusion and be specific, measurable and achievable. They should propose how the situation/problem could be improved by suggesting action to be taken. A “statement of cost” should be included if you are recommending changes that have financial implications. Recommendations can be numbered if you wish.
Appendices (sometimes included)
An appendix (plural=appendices) is detailed documentation of points you outline in your findings, for example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets etc. It is supplementary information which you consider to be too long or complicated or not quite relevant enough to include in your main body, but which still should be of interest to your reader.
Each appendix should be referred to in your text. You should not include something as an appendix if it is not discussed in the main body
Bibliography (sometimes included)
This is either a separate list of sources which you have used during your research, but have not actually made reference to in your writing, or this list together with your list of references.
Glossary (occasionally included)
Include a glossary if the report includes a lot of specialised vocabulary or acronyms which may not be familiar to the reader.

NOTE
Style
Always use clear and concise English, avoiding jargon and colloquial language.
Write in fairly short sentences.
Make sure you develop each paragraph sufficiently (usually a minimum of 5/6 sentences).
Most of your report should be impersonal, although it may be appropriate in your conclusion or recommendations to include more personal language.
Be extra careful with verb tenses.

NOTE:

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